Conceptualization of the psychological aspects of the normalization of gender-based violence against women during the escalation of war in Ukraine
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17721/BPSY.2025.2(22).5Keywords:
gender-based violence against women, normalization of gender-based violence, invisible forms of gender-based violence, war in UkraineAbstract
Background. The article focuses on the conceptualization of the psychological aspects underlying the normalization of gender-based violence against women during the escalation of war in Ukraine. A theoretical study was conducted to identify key social factors associated with changes in the readiness of victims and witnesses of violence–including combatants, civilian volunteers, and individuals residing in conflict zones – to report cases of gender-based violence or to seek help since the onset of the war's escalation in Ukraine.
Methods. Theoretical research methods were applied, including the analysis of scholarly sources, comparison and synthesis of concepts, generalization and modeling.
Results. The study examines attitudes toward invisible forms of gender-based violence against women and analyzes the social and cultural beliefs associated with the normalization of such violence. It was found that perceptions of invisible forms of gender-based violence against women are linked to several psychological constructs: ambivalent attitudes, coercive and utilitarian attitudes, and crisis-related attitudes. The process of normalization of gender-based violence against women is explored within the framework of gender-oriented microaggressions and ambivalent sexism theory. The study also identifies several social and cultural factors that contribute to this normalization, including: cultural beliefs about women's responsibility for men's behavior; internalized gender differences in relationships; cultural notions of male and female "biology"; societal pressure on women to prioritize family roles; conceptualizations of love; beliefs about "female strength"; pressure on women to remain focused on domestic spheres; and attitudes toward the acceptability of violence in certain areas of life.
Conclusions. Attitudes toward invisible forms of gender-based violence against women, along with the social and cultural beliefs associated with its normalization, represent relevant psychological constructs for understanding the processes of normalization under conditions of war escalation in Ukraine. Identifying, critically analyzing, and replacing such beliefs with less discriminatory ones may serve as an important factor in counteracting the normalization of gender-based violence against women.
Downloads
References
Akbash, K., Pasichnyk, N., & Rizhniak, R. (2025). Gender dimensions of Ukraine: adaptation of gender indices to the subnational level. KOD [in Ukrainian].
Bres, S. D. (2025). Features of social support for women who have experienced gender-based violence [Bachelor's thesis, Khmelnytskyi National University] [in Ukrainian].
Hrytsaniuk, V. V. (2024). Features of prevention of gender-based violence in Ukraine. Public Administration and Social Work, 2, 46–51. https://doi.org/10.32782/3041-1319/2023-2-7 [in Ukrainian].
Danyliuk, I. V., Kurapov, A. O., & Yahiaiev, I. I. (2019). Ethnocultural psychology: history and modernity. ArtEk [in Ukrainian].
Dovhaniuk, O. O. (2024). Psychological consequences of gender-based violence in conditions of military aggression [Bachelor's thesis, Zaporizhzhia National University] [in Ukrainian].
Karvatska, S., & Huralenko, N. (2024). The problem of protecting women's rights in conditions of armed conflict. Ehrlich’s Journal, (10), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.32782/ehrlichsjournal-2024-10.05 [in Ukrainian].
Koliada, N., Kochubei, T., Levchenko, N., & Voitovska, A. (2025). The influence of gender stereotypes on the occurrence of violence against women: analysis of current trends. Social Work and Education, 12(2), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.25128/2520-6230.25.2.6 [in Ukrainian].
Lushchyk, A. A. (2025). Ambivalent sexism in students with different locus of control and self-confidence [Bachelor's thesis, Sumy State University] [in Ukrainian].
Moskalenko, A. V. (2024). Counteracting gender-based violence against women under martial law [Bachelor's thesis, Zaporizhzhia National University] [in Ukrainian].
Oliinyk, Yu. I. (2025). Social support for women who suffered from gender-based violence [Master's thesis, Zaporizhzhia National University] [in Ukrainian].
About the project. (n.d.). Stem is Fem. https://stemisfem.org/pro-proekt [in Ukrainian].
Yaroshenko, A., & Semyhina, T. (2023). Testing of Ukrainian-language versions of questionnaires for the study of gender bias. Social Work and Education, 10(2), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.25128/2520-6230.23.2.4 [in Ukrainian].
Benalcázar-Luna, M., & Venegas, G. (2017). Micromachismo: manifestación de violencia simbólica [Micromachismo: manifestation of symbolic violence]. UTCiencia, 2(3), 140–149.
Biglarbegi, N. (2017). An invisible gender-based violence: Exploring Iranian male university students’ thoughts on street harassment [Master’s thesis, Uppsala University]. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1177958/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Bonino, L. (1991). Varones y abuso domestico [Men and domestic abuse]. In P. Sanroman (Coord.), Salud mental y ley. AEN.
Bonino, L. (1996). Micromachismos: la violencia invisible en la pareja [Micromachismos: invisible violence in the couple]. Primeras Jornadas de género en la sociedad actual (pp. 25–45). Generalitat Valenciana.
Bonino, L. (2005). Las microviolencias y sus efectos: claves para su detección [Micro-violences and their effects: keys for detection]. In C. Ruiz-Jarabo & P. Blanco (Coords.), La violencia contra las mujeres: prevención and detección (pp. 83–102). Díaz de Santos.
Bonino, L. (2017). Micromachismos 25 años después. Algunas reflexiones [Micromachismos 25 years later. Some reflections]. Pikara Magazine.
Cozolino, L. (2017). The neuroscience of psychotherapy: Healing the social brain. W. W. Norton & Company.
Dobarrio-Sanz, I., Fernández-Vargas, A., Fernández-Férez, A., Vanegas-Coveña, D. P., Cordero-Ahiman, O. V., Granero-Molina, J., ... & Hernández-Padilla, J. M. (2022). Development and psychometric assessment of a questionnaire for the detection of invisible violence against women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 11127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191711127
Fernández-Férez, A., Fernández-Vargas, A., Dobarrio-Sanz, I., Ochoa-Pineda, A. C., Abarca-Duran, X., Martínez-Abarca, A. L., ... & Hernández-Padilla, J. M. (2024). Development and psychometric evaluation of a questionnaire to assess attitudes towards invisible gender-based violence (Q-AIGV). Journal of Nursing Management, 2024(1), 9977927. https://doi.org/10.1155/jonm/9977927
Fulu, E., & Miedema, S. (2015). Violence against women: Globalizing the integrated ecological model. Violence Against Women, 21(12), 1431–1455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215596244
García-Cueto, E., Rodríguez-Dіaz, F. J., Bringas-Molleda, C., López-Cepero, J., Paíno-Quesada, S., & Rodríguez-Franco, L. (2015). Development of the gender role attitudes scale (GRAS) amongst young Spanish people. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 15(1), 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2014.10.004
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.70.3.491
Gracia, E., Martín-Fernández, M., Marco, M., Santirso, F. A., Vargas, V., & Lila, M. (2018). The willingness to intervene in cases of intimate partner violence against women (WI-IPVAW) scale: Development and validation of the long and short versions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01146
Heise, L. (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence Against Women, 4(3), 262–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801298004003002
Heise, L. (2011). What works to prevent partner violence? An evidence overview [Working Paper]. London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Hernández Martínez, E., Panarese, P., & Martínez Pérez, N. (2020). Cartografía de los micromachismos: dinámicas y violencia simbólica [Cartography of micromachismos: dynamics and symbolic violence]. Dykinson.
Jonnasdotir, A. (1993). El poder del amor [The power of love]. Catedra.
Jung, A. K., & O’Brien, K. M. (2019). The profound influence of unpaid work on women’s lives: An overview and future directions. Journal of Career Development, 46(2), 184–200. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845317734648
Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds.). (2002). World report on violence and health. World Health Organization.
Mite, P. S. (2025). Patriarchy and the cycle of violence: deconstructing the normalization of violence against women and children in Nagekeo. The International Journal of Politics and Sociology Research, 13(1), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.35335/ijopsor.v13i1.294
Perrin, N., Marsh, M., Clough, A., Desgroppes, A., Yope Phanuel, C., Abdi, A., ... & Glass, N. (2019). Social norms and beliefs about gender based violence scale: a measure for use with gender based violence prevention programs in low-resource and humanitarian settings. Conflict and Health, 13(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-019-0189-x
Reyes-Reinoso, J. R., Vázquez, A. F. Z., Aguirre, M. C. U., Leon-Prieto, M. E., Basso, L. S., & Ordoñez-Gavilanez, M. E. (2024). Overview of symbolic violence: A review of the literature. Revista De Gestão Social E Ambiental, 18, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.24857/rgsa.v18n6-140
Rodelli, M., Koutra, K., Thorvaldsdottir, K. B., Bilgin, H., Ratsika, N., Testoni, I., & Saint Arnault, D. M. (2022). Conceptual development and content validation of a multicultural instrument to assess the normalization of gender-based violence against women. Sexuality & Culture, 26(1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-021-09877-y
Serrano-Montilla, C., Lozano, L. M., Bender, M., & Padilla, J. L. (2020). Individual and societal risk factors of attitudes justifying intimate partner violence against women: a multilevel cross-sectional study. BMJ Open, 10(12), e037993. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037993
Sinko, L., Schaitkin, C., & Saint Arnault, D. (2021). The healing after gender-based violence scale (GBV-heal): An instrument to measure recovery progress in women-identifying survivors. Global Qualitative Nursing Research, 8, 2333393621996679. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333393621996679
Vahedi, L., McNelly, S., Lukow, N., Fonseca, A. C., Erskine, D., Poulton, C., ... & Seff, I. (2023). "The pandemic only gave visibility to what is invisible": a qualitative analysis of structural violence during COVID-19 and impacts on gender-based violence in Brazil. BMC Public Health, 23(1), 1854. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16675-8
Valor-Segura, I., Expósito, F., & Moya, M. (2011). Victim blaming and exoneration of the perpetrator in domestic violence: The role of beliefs in a just world and ambivalent sexism. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_SJOP.2011.v14.n1.17
Walker, L. E. (2006). Battered woman syndrome: Empirical findings. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087(1), 142–157. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1385.023
Walker, L. E. (2009). The battered woman syndrome. Springer Publishing Company.
Yount, K. M., VanderEnde, K., Zureick-Brown, S., Anh, H. T., Schuler, S. R., & Minh, T. H. (2014). Measuring attitudes about intimate partner violence against women: The ATT-IPV Scale. Demography, 51(4), 1551–1572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-014-0297-6
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Bulletin of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. Psychology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
